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Deer Need Food and Water to Survive. What Are Food and Water for the Deer Population?

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Family of mammals

This commodity is about the ruminant animal. For other uses, see Deer (disambiguation).

Deer[1]

Temporal range: Early Oligocene–Recent

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Cervidae1.jpg
Images of a few members of the family Cervidae (counterclockwise from peak left): the elk, the white-tailed deer, the grey brocket, the barasingha, the pudú, the sika deer, crimson deer, and the reindeer
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Form: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Pecora
Family: Cervidae
Goldfuss, 1820
Type genus
Cervus

Linnaeus, 1758
Subfamilies
  • Capreolinae
  • Cervinae
  • Hydropotinae
Deer range.png
Combined native range of all species of deer.

Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the blood-red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the reindeer (caribou), white-tailed deer, the roe deer, and the moose. Male person deer of all species (except the water deer) as well equally female reindeer, grow and shed new antlers each year. In this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are part of a unlike family (Bovidae) within the same guild of fifty-fifty-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla).

The musk deer (Moschidae) of Asia and chevrotains (Tragulidae) of tropical African and Asian forests are separate families that are also in the ruminant clade Ruminantia; they are not especially closely related to Cervidae.

Deer announced in art from Paleolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a part in mythology, faith, and literature throughout history, as well every bit in heraldry, such as scarlet deer that appear in the coat of arms of Åland.[2] Their economic importance includes the utilise of their meat as venison, their skins every bit soft, potent buckskin, and their antlers every bit handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a popular activity since the Middle Ages and remains a resource for many families today.

Etymology and terminology [edit]

The discussion deer was originally broad in significant, becoming more specific with time. Old English dēor and Centre English language der meant a wild creature of any kind. Cognates of Former English dēor in other expressionless Germanic languages take the general sense of fauna, such as Old Loftier High german tior, Erstwhile Norse djur or dȳr, Gothic dius, Old Saxon dier, and Old Frisian diar.[three] This full general sense gave way to the modern English sense by the end of the Middle English period, around 1500. All modernistic Germanic languages save English language and Scots retain the more general sense: for example, German Tier and Norwegian dyr mean animal.[four]

For many types of deer in mod English usage, the male is a buck and the female person a doe, only the terms vary with dialect, and according to the size of the species. The male red deer is a stag, while for other large species the male is a bull, the female a cow, as in cattle. In older usage, the male of whatsoever species is a hart, especially if over five years erstwhile, and the female is a hind, especially if three or more than years old.[v] The young of small species is a fawn and of large species a dogie; a very small young may exist a kid. A castrated male is a havier.[6] A group of any species is a herd. The adjective of relation is cervine; like the family unit name Cervidae, this is from Latin: cervus, meaning stag or deer.

Distribution [edit]

Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest. While often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous wood, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry out forest, and savanna habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to consume. Access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. Adequate wood or brush cover must all the same be provided for populations to grow and thrive.

Deer are widely distributed, with indigenous representatives in all continents except Antarctica and Australia, though Africa has only one native deer, the Barbary stag, a subspecies of ruby deer that is bars to the Atlas Mountains in the northwest of the continent. Another extinct species of deer, Megaceroides algericus, was present in North Africa until 6000 years ago. Fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. Pocket-size species of brocket deer and pudús of Fundamental and South America, and muntjacs of Asia generally occupy dense forests and are less often seen in open up spaces, with the possible exception of the Indian muntjac. There are also several species of deer that are highly specialized and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps, and "wet" savannas, or riparian corridors surrounded by deserts. Some deer have a circumpolar distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that alive in Chill tundra and taiga (boreal forests) and moose that inhabit taiga and adjacent areas. Huemul deer (taruca and Chilean huemul) of Due south America's Andes make full the ecological niches of the ibex and wild caprine animal, with the fawns behaving more than like caprine animal kids.

The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate N America lies in the Canadian Rocky Mountain and Columbia Mountain regions betwixt Alberta and British Columbia where all 5 Due north American deer species (white-tailed deer, mule deer, caribou, elk, and moose) can be plant. This region has several clusters of national parks including Mount Revelstoke National Park, Glacier National Park (Canada), Yoho National Park, and Kootenay National Park on the British Columbia side, and Banff National Park, Jasper National Park, and Glacier National Park (U.Southward.) on the Alberta and Montana sides. Mount gradient habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry subalpine/pine forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys betwixt the mountain ranges provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou take the almost restricted range living at college altitudes in the subalpine meadows and alpine tundra areas of some of the mountain ranges. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be near mutual in this region. Elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. The White-tailed deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills and river valley bottoms of the Canadian Rockies owing to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests assuasive more deciduous vegetation to grow up the mountain slopes. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, where they share habitat with the moose. The adjacent Peachy Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn.

Reindeer herds standing on snow to avert flies

The Eurasian Continent (including the Indian Subcontinent) boasts the most species of deer in the world, with most species being found in Asia. Europe, in comparison, has lower diversity in plant and brute species. Many national parks and protected reserves in Europe have populations of blood-red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer. These species have long been associated with the continent of Europe, but also inhabit Asia Minor, the Caucasus Mountains, and Northwestern Iran. "European" fallow deer historically lived over much of Europe during the Ice Ages, merely afterwards became restricted primarily to the Anatolian Peninsula, in nowadays-twenty-four hour period Turkey.

Present-mean solar day fallow deer populations in Europe are a issue of celebrated man-made introductions of this species, first to the Mediterranean regions of Europe, then eventually to the rest of Europe. They were initially park animals that later escaped and reestablished themselves in the wild. Historically, Europe'southward deer species shared their deciduous forest habitat with other herbivores, such as the extinct tarpan (forest equus caballus), extinct aurochs (woods ox), and the endangered wisent (European bison). Good places to see deer in Europe include the Scottish Highlands, the Austrian Alps, the wetlands between Austria, Hungary, and the Czech Republic and some fine National Parks, including Doñana National Park in Spain, the Veluwe in holland, the Ardennes in Kingdom of belgium, and Białowieża National Park of Poland. Spain, Eastern Europe, and the Caucasus Mountains still take virgin wood areas that are not only abode to sizable deer populations merely likewise for other animals that were once abundant such as the wisent, Eurasian lynx, Iberian lynx, wolves, and brown bears.

The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering Northward Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern Cathay), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are amidst some of the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the earth where one tin find Siberian roe deer, sika deer, elk, and moose. Asian caribou occupy the northern fringes of this region along the Sino-Russian border.

Deer such as the sika deer, Thorold's deer, Central Asian red deer, and elk have historically been farmed for their antlers by Han Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Like the Sami people of Republic of finland and Scandinavia, the Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia, and the Ussuri Region take also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of Asian caribou.

The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in South asia in India's Indo-Gangetic Plainly Region and Nepal'due south Terai Region. These fertile plains consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are abode to chital, hog deer, barasingha, Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Grazing species such as the endangered barasingha and very common chital are gregarious and live in big herds. Indian sambar tin can be gregarious but are usually lonely or alive in smaller herds. Pig deer are alone and take lower densities than Indian muntjac. Deer can be seen in several national parks in Republic of india, Nepal, and Sri Lanka of which Kanha National Park, Dudhwa National Park, and Chitwan National Park are most famous. Sri Lanka's Wilpattu National Park and Yala National Park have large herds of Indian sambar and chital. The Indian sambar are more than gregarious in Sri Lanka than other parts of their range and tend to form larger herds than elsewhere.

The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical seasonal moist deciduous wood and wet savanna that hosted populations of hog deer, the now-extinct Schomburgk's deer, Eld'southward deer, Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Both the grunter deer and Eld's deer are rare, whereas Indian sambar and Indian muntjac thrive in protected national parks, such every bit Khao Yai. Many of these South Asian and Southeast Asian deer species also share their habitat with other herbivores, such equally Asian elephants, the diverse Asian rhinoceros species, various antelope species (such every bit nilgai, four-horned antelope, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle in Bharat), and wild oxen (such every bit wild Asian water buffalo, gaur, banteng, and kouprey). One way that different herbivores can survive together in a given expanse is for each species to have different food preferences, although at that place may exist some overlap.

As a event of acclimatisation society releases in the 19th century, Australia has 6 introduced species of deer that take established sustainable wild populations. They are fallow deer, red deer, sambar, hog deer, rusa, and chital. Red deer were introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and Scottish stock. Many accept been domesticated in deer farms since the late 1960s and are common subcontract animals there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand only none are equally widespread every bit crimson deer.[7]

Clarification [edit]

Deer plant the 2d well-nigh diverse family unit of artiodactyla afterwards bovids.[8] Though of a similar build, deer are strongly distinguished from antelopes by their antlers, which are temporary and regularly regrown dissimilar the permanent horns of bovids.[9] Characteristics typical of deer include long, powerful legs, a atomic tail and long ears.[x] Deer exhibit a broad variation in physical proportions. The largest extant deer is the moose, which is nearly 2.six metres (8 ft 6 in) tall and weighs up to 800 kilograms (i,800 lb).[eleven] [12] The elk stands ane.4–2 metres (4 ft 7 in – half dozen ft seven in) at the shoulder and weighs 240–450 kilograms (530–990 lb).[thirteen] The northern pudu is the smallest deer in the earth; it reaches just 32–35 centimetres (12+ 1⁄ii –14 in) at the shoulder and weighs 3.three–6 kilograms (7+ 1⁄4 –13+ ane⁄four  lb). The southern pudu is only slightly taller and heavier.[14] Sexual dimorphism is quite pronounced – in about species males tend to be larger than females,[xv] and, except for the reindeer, merely males possess antlers.[16]

Coat colour mostly varies betwixt ruby and brown,[17] though it can be as dark as chocolate chocolate-brown in the tufted deer[xviii] or have a grayish tinge every bit in elk.[xiii] Different species of brocket deer vary from gray to ruddy dark-brown in coat colour.[19] Several species such equally the chital,[20] the dormant deer[21] and the sika deer[22] feature white spots on a brownish glaze. Coat of reindeer shows notable geographical variation.[23] Deer undergo ii moults in a year;[17] [24] for instance, in red deer the red, thin-haired summer glaze is gradually replaced by the dense, greyish chocolate-brown winter coat in autumn, which in plow gives way to the summer glaze in the following spring.[25] Moulting is affected past the photoperiod.[26]

Deer are also first-class jumpers and swimmers. Deer are ruminants, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. Some deer, such equally those on the island of Rùm,[27] exercise eat meat when it is available.[28]

Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each centre. The gland contains a strongly scented pheromone, used to mark its dwelling range. Bucks of a broad range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have a liver without a gallbladder. Deer also have a tapetum lucidum, which gives them sufficiently good night vision.

Antlers [edit]

All male deer possess antlers, with the exception of the h2o deer, in which males take long tusk-like canines that attain below the lower jaw.[29] Females generally lack antlers, though female reindeer conduct antlers smaller and less branched than those of the males.[30] Occasionally females in other species may develop antlers, peculiarly in telemetacarpal deer such as European roe deer, cerise deer, white-tailed deer and mule deer and less often in plesiometacarpal deer. A study of antlered female white-tailed deer noted that antlers tend to be small and malformed, and are shed oft around the fourth dimension of parturition.[31]

The fallow deer and the various subspecies of the reindeer take the largest as well equally the heaviest antlers, both in absolute terms also as in proportion to body mass (an average of eight grams per kilogram of torso mass);[30] [32] the tufted deer, on the other hand, has the smallest antlers of all deer, while the pudú has the lightest antlers with respect to trunk mass (0.6 g per kilogram of body mass).[30] The structure of antlers bear witness considerable variation; while dormant deer and elk antlers are palmate (with a broad central portion), white-tailed deer antlers include a serial of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving principal beam, and those of the pudú are mere spikes.[14] Antler evolution begins from the pedicel, a bony construction that appears on the top of the skull by the time the animal is a yr former. The pedicel gives rise to a spiky antler the following twelvemonth, that is replaced by a branched antler in the third year. This process of losing a set of antlers to develop a larger and more branched set continues for the rest of the life.[30] The antlers sally equally soft tissues (known as velvet antlers) and progressively harden into bony structures (known as difficult antlers), following mineralisation and blockage of blood vessels in the tissue, from the tip to the base.[33]

Antlers might be one of the nigh exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics,[34] and are intended primarily for reproductive success through sexual option and for gainsay. The tines (forks) on the antlers create grooves that permit another male's antlers to lock into identify. This allows the males to wrestle without risking injury to the face.[35] Antlers are correlated to an individual's position in the social hierarchy and its behaviour. For instance, the heavier the antlers, the college the individual's status in the social hierarchy, and the greater the delay in shedding the antlers;[30] males with larger antlers tend to exist more aggressive and ascendant over others.[36] Antlers can be an honest indicate of genetic quality; males with larger antlers relative to body size tend to accept increased resistance to pathogens[37] and college reproductive chapters.[38]

In elk in Yellowstone National Park, antlers also provide protection against predation by wolves.[39]

Homology of tines, that is, the branching structure of antlers amid species, have been discussed earlier the 1900s.[forty] [41] [42] Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers and determining homology of tines was developed.[43]

Teeth [edit]

Most deer bear 32 teeth; the respective dental formula is: 0.0.3.3 3.1.three.three . The elk and the reindeer may be exceptions, as they may retain their upper canines and thus have 34 teeth (dental formula: 0.i.3.3 3.1.iii.3 ).[44] The Chinese water deer, tufted deer, and muntjac accept enlarged upper canine teeth forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide diversity of vegetation.[45] The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper incisors, instead having a tough pad at the forepart of their upper jaw.

Biological science [edit]

Fawn, nigh one month onetime, near Columbus, Ohio

Nutrition [edit]

Deer are browsers, and feed primarily on foliage of grasses, sedges, forbs, shrubs and trees, secondarily on lichens in northern latitudes during winter.[46] They have small, unspecialized stomachs by ruminant standards, and high diet requirements. Rather than eating and digesting vast quantities of depression-course gristly food as, for example, sheep and cattle exercise, deer select easily digestible shoots, immature leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit, fungi, and lichens. The low-fibered food, after minimal fermentation and shredding, passes speedily through the gastrointestinal tract. The deer crave a large corporeality of minerals such as calcium and phosphate in society to support antler growth, and this further necessitates a nutrient-rich diet. There are some reports of deer engaging in carnivorous activity, such every bit eating dead alewives along lakeshores[47] or depredating the nests of northern bobwhites.[48]

Reproduction [edit]

Most all cervids are then-chosen uniparental species: the fawns are merely cared for by the female parent, known as a doe. A doe more often than not has i or ii fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). Mating flavor typically begins in subsequently August and lasts until December. Some species mate until early on March. The gestation menses is anywhere up to ten months for the European roe deer. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose these spots past the end of their showtime winter. In the get-go twenty minutes of a fawn'due south life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost costless of scent, so predators volition not find it. Its mother leaves often to graze, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its mother must gently push information technology downward with her foot.[49] [ better source needed ] The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one calendar week until it is stiff enough to walk with its mother. The fawn and its female parent stay together for near one year. A male unremarkably leaves and never sees his mother again, just females sometimes come back with their own fawns and course pocket-size herds.

Illness [edit]

In some areas of the UK, deer (particularly fallow deer due to their gregarious behaviour) have been implicated every bit a possible reservoir for transmission of bovine tuberculosis,[50] [51] a affliction which in the Uk in 2005 cost £90 million in attempts to eradicate.[52] In New Zealand, deer are thought to be important equally vectors picking up M. bovis in areas where brushtail possums Trichosurus vulpecula are infected, and transferring it to previously uninfected possums when their carcasses are scavenged elsewhere.[53] The white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus has been confirmed as the sole maintenance host in the Michigan outbreak of bovine tuberculosis which remains a significant barrier to the Usa nationwide eradication of the disease in livestock.[54]

Moose and deer can carry rabies.[55]

Docile moose may suffer from brain worm, a helminth which drills holes through the encephalon in its search for a suitable place to lay its eggs. A government biologist states that "They move effectually looking for the right spot and never really observe it." Deer announced to be immune to this parasite; it passes through the digestive system and is excreted in the carrion. The parasite is non screened past the moose intestine, and passes into the brain where damage is done that is externally credible, both in behaviour and in gait.[55]

Deer, elk and moose in Northward America may endure from chronic wasting disease, which was identified at a Colorado laboratory in the 1960s and is believed to be a prion disease. Out of an abundance of caution hunters are advised to avert contact with specified risk textile (SRM) such as the encephalon, spinal column or lymph nodes. Deboning the meat when butchering and sanitizing the knives and other tools used to butcher are amid other government recommendations.[56]

Development [edit]

Deer are believed to take evolved from antlerless, tusked ancestors that resembled modern duikers and diminutive deer in the early Eocene, and gradually developed into the starting time antlered cervoids (the superfamily of cervids and related extinct families) in the Miocene. Somewhen, with the development of antlers, the tusks every bit well as the upper incisors disappeared. Thus, development of deer took virtually 30 million years. Biologist Valerius Geist suggests evolution to have occurred in stages. At that place are not many prominent fossils to trace this development, but only fragments of skeletons and antlers that might be hands confused with false antlers of non-cervid species.[fourteen] [57]

Eocene [edit]

The ruminants, ancestors of the Cervidae, are believed to have evolved from Diacodexis, the earliest known artiodactyl (fifty-fifty-toed ungulate), 50–55 Mya in the Eocene.[58] Diacodexis, nearly the size of a rabbit, featured the talus bone characteristic of all modernistic even-toed ungulates. This ancestor and its relatives occurred throughout N America and Eurasia, but were on the decline past at to the lowest degree 46 Mya.[58] [59] Analysis of a nearly consummate skeleton of Diacodexis discovered in 1982 gave rise to speculation that this ancestor could exist closer to the not-ruminants than the ruminants.[60] Andromeryx is some other prominent prehistoric ruminant, but appears to be closer to the tragulids.[61]

Oligocene [edit]

The germination of the Himalayas and the Alps brought nigh pregnant geographic changes. This was the chief reason backside the all-encompassing diversification of deer-like forms and the emergence of cervids from the Oligocene to the early on Pliocene.[62] The latter half of the Oligocene (28–34 Mya) saw the advent of the European Eumeryx and the North American Leptomeryx. The latter resembled modern-day bovids and cervids in dental morphology (for example, it had brachyodont molars), while the old was more advanced.[63] Other deer-like forms included the North American Blastomeryx and the European Dremotherium; these sabre-toothed animals are believed to take been the direct ancestors of all modernistic antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers.[64] Another contemporaneous form was the iv-horned protoceratid Protoceras, that was replaced by Syndyoceras in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose.[57] Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 one thousand thousand years ago, which were constitute in North America, bear witness that Syndyoceras had bony skull outgrowths that resembled not-deciduous antlers.[65]

Miocene [edit]

Fossil testify suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene. Dicrocerus, Euprox and Heteroprox were probably the first antlered cervids.[66] Dicrocerus featured single-forked antlers that were shed regularly.[67] Stephanocemas had more developed and lengthened ("crowned") antlers.[68] Procervulus (Palaeomerycidae) as well possessed antlers that were not shed.[69] Contemporary forms such every bit the merycodontines somewhen gave rising to the modern pronghorn.[lxx]

The Cervinae emerged as the first group of extant cervids effectually 7–9 Mya, during the late Miocene in central Asia. The tribe Muntiacini made its appearance equally † Muntiacus leilaoensis around 7–viii Mya;[71] The early on muntjacs varied in size–equally minor as hares or as large as fallow deer. They had tusks for fighting and antlers for defense force.[14] Capreolinae followed soon after; Alceini appeared six.four–8.iv Mya.[72] Around this period, the Tethys Ocean disappeared to give way to vast stretches of grassland; these provided the deer with abundant poly peptide-rich vegetation that led to the development of ornamental antlers and allowed populations to flourish and colonise areas.[14] [62] As antlers had become pronounced, the canines were either lost or became poorly represented (as in elk), probably because diet was no longer browse-dominated and antlers were better display organs. In muntjac and tufted deer, the antlers as well as the canines are pocket-sized. The tragulids possess long canines to this twenty-four hours.[59]

Pliocene [edit]

With the onset of the Pliocene, the global climate became cooler. A autumn in the sea-level led to massive glaciation; consequently, grasslands abounded in nutritious forage. Thus a new spurt in deer populations ensued.[fourteen] [62] The oldest member of Cervini, † Cervocerus novorossiae, appeared effectually the transition from Miocene to Pliocene (4.two–six Mya) in Eurasia;[73] cervine fossils from early on Pliocene to as late as the Pleistocene take been excavated in Red china[74] and the Himalayas.[75] While Cervus and Dama appeared nearly 3 Mya, Axis emerged during the late Pliocene–Pleistocene. The tribes Capreolini and Rangiferini appeared around 4–seven Mya.[72]

Around 5 Mya, the rangiferina † Bretzia and † Eocoileus were the start cervids to attain Northward America.[72] This implies the Bering Strait could be crossed during the late Miocene–Pliocene; this appears highly likely as the camelids migrated into Asia from North America around the same time.[76] Deer invaded South America in the tardily Pliocene (2.5–three Mya) as function of the Great American Interchange, thanks to the recently formed Isthmus of Panama, and emerged successful due to the pocket-size number of competing ruminants in the continent.[77]

Pleistocene [edit]

Large deer with impressive antlers evolved during the early on Pleistocene, probably as a result of abundant resources to drive evolution.[14] The early Pleistocene cervid † Eucladoceros was comparable in size to the modern elk.[78] † Megaloceros (Pliocene–Pleistocene) featured the Irish elk (M. giganteus), one of the largest known cervids. The Irish elk reached 2 metres (6+ i⁄2  ft) at the shoulder and had heavy antlers that spanned 3.6 metres (eleven ft 10 in) from tip to tip.[79] These big animals are thought to accept faced extinction due to disharmonize between sexual selection for large antlers and body and natural selection for a smaller course.[80] Meanwhile, the moose and reindeer radiated into North America from Siberia.[81]

Taxonomy and classification [edit]

Deer constitute the artiodactyl family Cervidae. This family was start described by German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss in Handbuch der Zoologie (1820). Three subfamilies are recognised: Capreolinae (first described by the English zoologist Joshua Brookes in 1828), Cervinae (described by Goldfuss) and Hydropotinae (first described by French zoologist Édouard Louis Trouessart in 1898).[8] [82]

Other attempts at the classification of deer take been based on morphological and genetic differences.[57] The Anglo-Irish naturalist Victor Brooke suggested in 1878 that deer could be bifurcated into two classes on the co-ordinate to the features of the second and fifth metacarpal bones of their forelimbs: Plesiometacarpalia (virtually Old World deer) and Telemetacarpalia (most New World deer). He treated the musk deer as a cervid, placing information technology under Telemetacarpalia. While the telemetacarpal deer showed only those elements located far from the joint, the plesiometacarpal deer retained the elements closer to the joint as well.[83] Differentiation on the footing of diploid number of chromosomes in the late 20th century has been flawed past several inconsistencies.[57]

In 1987, the zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identified three subfamilies: Cervinae, Hydropotinae and Odocoileinae; they noted that the hydropotines lack antlers, and the other 2 subfamilies differ in their skeletal morphology.[84] They reverted from this classification in 2000.[85]

External relationships [edit]

Until 2003, it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae. Then a phylogenetic report by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, French republic) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sis to Cervidae. Co-ordinate to the study, Cervidae diverged from the Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago.[86] The following cladogram is based on the 2003 written report.[86]

Internal relationships [edit]

A 2006 phylogenetic report of the internal relationships in Cervidae by Clément Gilbert and colleagues divided the family into two major clades: Capreolinae (telemetacarpal or New Globe deer) and Cervinae (plesiometacarpal or Old World deer). Studies in the late 20th century suggested a similar bifurcation in the family. This besides as previous studies support monophyly in Cervinae, while Capreolinae appears paraphyletic. The 2006 report identified 2 lineages in Cervinae, Cervini (comprising the genera Axis, Cervus, Dama and Rucervus) and Muntiacini (Muntiacus and Elaphodus). Capreolinae featured three lineages, Alceini (Alces species), Capreolini (Capreolus and the subfamily Hydropotinae) and Rangiferini (Blastocerus, Hippocamelus, Mazama, Odocoileus, Pudu and Rangifer species). The following cladogram is based on the 2006 study.[72]

Man interaction [edit]

Prehistoric [edit]

Deer were an of import source of nutrient for early hominids. In China, Homo erectus fed upon the sika deer, while the cherry-red deer was hunted in Deutschland. In the Upper Palaeolithic, the reindeer was the staple food for Cro-Magnon people,[87] while the cave paintings at Lascaux in southwestern France include some 90 images of stags.[88] In China, deer continued to be a master source of food for millennia even after people began farming, and it is possible that sika and other deer benefited from the frequently abandoned field sites.[89]

Historic [edit]

Deer had a central office in the aboriginal fine art, civilization and mythology of the Hittites, the ancient Egyptians, the Celts, the ancient Greeks, the Asians and several others. For instance, the Stag Hunt Mosaic of ancient Pella, under the Kingdom of Macedonia (quaternary century BC), mayhap depicts Alexander the Great hunting a deer with Hephaestion.[90] In Japanese Shintoism, the sika deer is believed to be a messenger to the gods. In Red china, deer are associated with great medicinal significance; deer penis is thought by some in Red china to accept aphrodisiac properties.[91] Spotted deer are believed in Cathay to accompany the god of longevity. Deer was the principal sacrificial fauna for the Huichal Indians of Mexico. In medieval Europe, deer appeared in hunting scenes and coats-of-arms. Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes.[87] [92]

The mutual male first proper noun Oscar is taken from the Irish Language, where it is derived from two elements: the commencement, os, means "deer"; the second chemical element, cara, means "friend". The proper name is borne by a famous hero of Irish gaelic mythology—Oscar, grandson of Fionn Mac Cumhail. The name was popularised in the 18th century by James Macpherson, creator of 'Ossianic poesy'.

Literary [edit]

In the Indian ballsy Ramayana, Sita is lured past a gold deer (maricha)

Deer have been an integral part of fables and other literary works since the inception of writing. Stags were used as symbols in the latter Sumerian writings. For case, the boat of Sumerian god Enki is named the Stag of Azbu. There are several mentions of the animal in the Rigveda also as the Bible. In the Indian epic Ramayana, Sita is lured by a golden deer which Rama tries to catch. In the absence of both Rama and Lakshman, Ravana kidnaps Sita. Many of the allegorical Aesop's fables, such as "The Stag at the Puddle", "The Ane-Eyed Doe" and "The Stag and a King of beasts", personify deer to give moral lessons. For example, "The Sick Stag" gives the message that uncaring friends can do more than harm than good.[87] The Yaqui deer song accompanies the deer dance which is performed past a pascola [from the Castilian 'pascua', Easter] dancer (besides known as a deer dancer). Pascolas would perform at religious and social functions many times of the year, specially during Lent and Easter.[87] [93]

In one of Rudolf Erich Raspe'south 1785 stories of Businesswoman Munchausen'southward Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russian federation, the businesswoman encounters a stag while eating cherries and, without ammunition, fires the ruddy-pits at the stag with his musket, but it escapes. The next yr, the baron encounters a stag with a cherry tree growing from its caput; presumably this is the brute he had shot at the previous year. In Christmas lore (such as in the narrative poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas"), reindeer are often depicted pulling the sleigh of Santa Claus.[94] Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings'due south Pulitzer Prize-winning 1938 novel The Yearling was nearly a boy'due south relationship with a baby deer. The fiction book Fire Bringer is well-nigh a young fawn who goes on a quest to salve the Herla, the deer kind.[95] In the 1942 Walt Disney Pictures film, Bambi is a white-tailed deer, while in Felix Salten'south original 1923 volume Bambi, a Life in the Wood, he is a roe deer. In C. S. Lewis'due south 1950 fantasy novel The Panthera leo, the Witch and the Wardrobe the developed Pevensies, at present kings and queens of Narnia, chase the White Stag on a hunt, as the Stag is said to grant its captor a wish. The hunt is fundamental in returning the Pevensies to their dwelling in England. In the 1979 book The Animals of Farthing Woods, The Great White Stag is the leader of all the animals.

Heraldic [edit]

Deer of diverse types announced often in European heraldry. In the British arsenal, the term "stag" is typically used to refer to antlered male person red deer, while "buck" indicates an antlered male fallow deer. Stags and bucks announced in a number of attitudes, referred to every bit "lodged" when the deer is lying downward, "trippant" when it has one leg raised, "courant" when it is running, "springing" when in the human action of leaping, "statant" when it is standing with all hooves on the ground and looking ahead, and "at gaze" when otherwise statant but looking at the viewer. Stags' heads are also frequently used; these are typically portrayed without an attached neck and every bit facing the viewer, in which case they are termed "caboshed".[96]

Examples of deer in coats of arms can exist plant in the artillery of Hertfordshire, England, and its canton town of Hertford; both are examples of canting arms. A deer appears on the arms of the Israeli Postal Authority. Coats of artillery featuring deer include those of Dotternhausen, Thierachern, Friolzheim, Bauen, Albstadt, and Dassel in Germany; of the Earls Bathurst in England;[97] of Balakhna, Russia; of Åland, Republic of finland; of Gjemnes, Hitra, Hjartdal, Rendalen and Voss in Kingdom of norway; of Jelenia Góra, Poland; of Umeå, Sweden; of Queensland, Australia; of Cervera, Catalonia; of Northern Republic of ireland; and of Chile.[ commendation needed ]

Other types of deer used in heraldry include the hind, portrayed much like the stag or buck but without antlers, equally well equally the reindeer and winged stags. Winged stags are used as supporters in the artillery of the de Carteret family unit. The sea-stag, possessing the antlers, head, forelegs and upper body of a stag and the tail of a mermaid, is often found in German heraldry.[96]

Economic [edit]

Deer accept long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, known every bit venison, is highly nutritious.[98] [99] Due to the inherently wild nature and diet of deer, venison is well-nigh ofttimes obtained through deer hunting. In the U.s., it is produced in small amounts compared to beef, merely yet represents a meaning trade. Deer hunting is a pop activity in the U.S. that provides the hunter's family with loftier quality meat and generates revenue for states and the federal regime from the sales of licenses, permits and tags. The 2006 survey past the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that license sales generate approximately $700 million annually. This acquirement generally goes to support conservation efforts in the states where the licenses are purchased. Overall, the U.S. Fish and Wild fauna Service estimates that large game hunting for deer and elk generates approximately $11.eight billion annually in hunting-related travel, equipment and related expenditures.[100] Conservation laws foreclose the sale of unlicensed wild game meat, although it may exist donated.

Deer have often been bred in captivity as ornaments for parks, merely just in the case of reindeer has thorough domestication succeeded.[101] By 2012, some 25,000 tons of red deer were raised on farms in North America. The Sami of Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern Asia apply reindeer for food, clothing, and transport. Others are bred for hunting are selected based on the size of the antlers.[102] The major deer-producing countries are New Zealand, the market leader, with Republic of ireland, Nifty Britain and Germany. The trade earns over $100 million annually for these countries.[103]

Auto collisions with deer can impose a pregnant price on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5 million deer-vehicle collisions occur each year, according to the National Highway Traffic Rubber Administration. Those accidents cause most 150 man deaths and $i.1 billion in property damage annually.[104] In Scotland, several roads including the A82, the A87 and the A835 have had pregnant enough problems with deer vehicle collisions (DVCs) that sets of vehicle activated automatic warning signs have been installed along these roads.[105]

The skins brand a peculiarly strong, soft leather, known as buckskin. There is nada special near skins with the fur nonetheless on since the pilus is breakable and soon falls off. The hoofs and horns are used for ornamental purposes, especially the antlers of the roe deer, which are utilized for making umbrella handles, and for like purposes; elk horn is ofttimes employed in making knife handles. Among the Inuit, the traditional ulu women's pocketknife was made with an antler, horn, or ivory handle.[106] In Communist china, a medicine is made from stag horn, and the antlers of sure species are eaten when "in the velvet".[101] Velvet antlers in medicine accept been shown to have health benefits including an enhanced immune arrangement and athletic operation, besides as being constructive treatment for arthritis. Antlers can also be boiled downwards to release the protein gelatin, which is used every bit a topical handling for skin irritation and is also used in cooking.[107]

Since the early 20th century, deer take get commonly thought of every bit pests in New Zealand due to a lack of predators on the island causing population numbers to increase and begin encroaching on more populated areas. They compete with livestock for resource, every bit well every bit cause excess erosion and wreak havoc on wild plant species and agriculture alike. They can likewise have an effect on the conservation efforts of other plant and brute species, equally they can critically kickoff the balance within an environment by drastically depleting diversity inside forests.[108]

See likewise [edit]

  • Deer management
  • Australian Deer Association
  • Deer woods
  • Reindeer hunting in Greenland
  • Largest cervids

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Further reading [edit]

  • Deerland: America's Hunt for Ecological Residual and the Essence of Wildness past Al Cambronne, Lyons Press (2013), ISBN 978-0-7627-8027-three

External links [edit]

  • Family unit Cervidae at the Animal Diversity Web
  • Chronic Wasting Illness Information
  • Globe of Deer Museum Archived 22 October 2020 at the Wayback Motorcar
  • Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Civilization – Deer
  • "Deer". The New Educatee'southward Reference Piece of work. 1914.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deer

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